The Myers-Briggs theory, for example, argues that personality type has a significant impact on how an individual learns. Drawing on Jung’s personality theory, at the heart of the Myers-Briggs approach is a distinction between an extravert and introvert personality. Extraverts are outward thinking, whereas introverts are concerned with their inner life; as such, it follows that an extravert’s general interest is directed towards externally-focused activities, whereas an introvert is more contained and will tend to direct their attention inwards.

There are also several other broad categories: intuition; sensing; feeling; thinking; judging; perceiving. These can be combined to create 16 different learning styles. One student might be an EITP, for instance (extravert, intuitor, thinker, judger) whilst another might be ISFP (introvert, sensor, feeler, perceiver). Here is a broad overview of how each ‘type’ might best learn in a university setting:

Extraverts learn best when:

• They are able to work in groups.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who promote group discussion.
• They are allowed to work in an environment with ambient noise (extraverts do not respond well to complete silence).

Introverts learn best when:

• They are able to work in solitude.
• They can prioritise reading-based study, and are able to work in silence.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who deliver information clearly (through lectures or presentations).
• They are given plenty of time to evaluate and question their own thinking.

Sensors learn best when:

• They are able to prioritise memory-based learning (such as committing facts to heart).
• They are involved in classes with teachers who deliver information in an instructive manner.
• They are able to trust material as presented, without needing to probe further.

Intuitors learn best when:

• They are given the opportunity to probe materials and go beyond what is stated.
• They are allowed to demonstrate originality and flair.
• They are encouraged to read around the subject and draw on secondary material to gain perspective.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who encourage independent thinking.

Thinkers learn best when:

• They are presented with new and original academic ideas to assess.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who promote lively debate.
• They are allowed to prioritise logic and objectivity.

Feelers learn best when:

• They can relate to academic material on a personal level.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who develop a personal rapport with students.
• They receive plenty of feedback on their work and contributions to class.
• They receive plenty of personal support in terms of their learning and progress.

Judgers learn best when:

• They are able to plan their work well in advance.
• They are involved in classes with teachers who are well organised and promote a clear plan of learning.
• They are given clearly-defined goals to work towards.
• They are encouraged to problem solve in a formal, structured manner.

Perceivers learn best when:

• They are able to work spontaneously.
• They are not given too many strict deadlines.
• They are involved in classes with inspiring, energetic teachers.
• They are not allowed to settle into a routine; instead, perceivers prefer to be surprised by course materials and enjoy adapting to unexpected changes.
• They are encouraged to problem solve in a formal, structured manner (like judgers).

If you work in education and are seeking inventive ways of engaging your students, why not try Crowdfund Campus’ unique platform? Our live crowdfunding marketplace and Sandpit simulation tool nurtures all types of learning, encouraging students to tackle new challenges, take risks, and hone their approach to problem solving. Contact us today to learn how our innovative offering can enliven your classroom.

Background

It is generally agreed that, prior to the mid-1970s, there was no real body of work which attempted to explain different learning styles – until the research conducted by Ference Marton and Roger Säljö at the University of Gothenburg, that is. This work is considered crucial, and in order to discuss the findings of Entwistle and Ramsden, we must first understand the Marton and Säljö experiments.

During these experiments, which were conducted in 1976, Swedish students were asked to read an article. Once they had finished reading, they were asked a series of questions (such as ‘Did you find the passage interesting?’ and ‘Could you describe how you went about reading this text’?). The sessions were conducted on an individual basis and the discussions transcribed.

The aim of the experiment was to identify different approaches to learning. Marton and Säljö’s analysis of the results led them to separate the students into two learning categories: deep and surface learners. Deep learners were found to be prone to minute exploration, showing interest in the meaning behind the topic, and attempting to enhance their understanding by relating the material to other forms of knowledge. Surface learners, by contrast, were preoccupied with only the major themes, and tended to commit these to memory.

Entwistle and Ramsden

Building on Marton and Säljö’s earlier research, Entwistle and Ramsden extended the existing classifications of learning to include a third type: the strategic learner. In their seminal work, Approaches to Studying Inventory (1981), they refine Marton and Säljö’s ideas, creating a questionnaire (ASI) to identify the three different approaches. The characteristics of each learning style are outlined below.

Surface learning

Surface learners are focused on acquiring facts – to them, this is what learning is ‘for’. Surface learners often test well, as they are likely to memorise everything their course leader has told them – however, if an exam requires ‘outside the box’ thinking, they may struggle. They respond best to teachers who favour a didactic teaching style, and who will tell them exactly which materials to read and which notes to take. They respond badly to ideas that seem vague and overly complex; if there are too many strands to an argument, and the connections are not clear, they will struggle to follow.

Strategic learning

Strategic learners are focused on achievement. They will focus their efforts on time management, efficient working, and consistency (creating a study schedule that encompasses regular, lengthy periods of study, sticking to this rigidly for a time, and monitoring the strategy’s efficacy). Heavily influenced by the perceived preferences of their course leaders, they are very responsive to individual assessment criteria, adapting their approaches to suit the individual subject.

Deep learning

Deep learners are focused on self-development. Rather than learning by rote, deep learners search for meaning in their study materials, and are excited by new ideas. Ever curious, they constantly re-assess, spending time measuring what they are learning against past experiences to enrich their understanding. In direct contract to surface learners, deep learners relish complex ideas and respond well to a holistic approach: if given the opportunity to explore many strands at once, and look for patterns, they are able to better understand the overall theme.

When reviewing the above – and considering learning styles – it is helpful for educators and students to understand the importance of adaptability and individuality. Entwistle’s theory places value on the individuality of the learner: that there is real merit in giving students the freedom to use different approaches in different circumstances, and encouraging students to assess their own approaches and individual aims.

If you’re searching for new ways to engage your students, Crowdfund Campus’ Sandpit  tool may offer the perfect solution. Contact us today to learn how our unique crowdfunding simulation – which caters for different types of learning and nurtures creative problem-solving mindsets – can help your class.

The Grasha-Reichmann Learning Style Scales

In 1974, Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Reichmann formulated the Grasha-Reichmann Learning Style Scales (GRLSS). This model was developed with the aim of analysing how students approach learning. As such, it focused on their attitudes towards learning, behaviour in the classroom, and relationships with peers and teachers, rather than methodology or achievement levels.

Grasha, an influential educator who eventually held the distinguished post of professor of psychology at the University of Cincinatti, first became interested in learning styles whilst working as a teaching assistant at the university. Unusually – because most cognitive studies proceed down a non-judgemental route – his attention was initially focused on those styles he felt to be detrimental to a student’s progress (later entitled avoidant, competitive, and dependent).

To develop his theory, Grasha interviewed approximately 75 students, gaging their reactions to traditional classroom systems. These early studies formed the basis of the first three ‘negative’ styles, which Grasha and Reichmann built upon to design a more complex model of six primary learning styles. It was Grasha and Reichmann’s belief that several of these styles are present in every learner – to varying degrees – but that students must be encouraged to focus on the ‘adaptive’ rather than ‘maladaptive’ styles. To aid educators, they developed the GRLSS teaching styles survey, a sophisticated questionnaire designed for instructors, which aims to provide insight into how their teaching complements or conflicts with the needs of their students.

Grasha and Reichmann’s six styles are classified as follows:

• avoidant
• participative
• competitive
• collaborative
• dependent
• independent

Avoidant
Avoidant students tend to perform poorly, achieving grades at the lower end of the spectrum. They are unenthusiastic about learning, do not engage with other students or teachers, and generally display a lack of interest in classroom activities. Absenteeism is often a problem with avoidant learners. To help spark their interest, avoid ‘rote’ learning and structured, ‘tick the box’ exercises – exams and tests do not suit avoidant learners. A more relaxed teaching style – avoiding pushiness or an overly peppy attitude – will appeal.

Participative
Participative students engage with their teachers and relate well to their peers. They are good at accepting responsibility for their own work and like to make the most of all learning situations. Teamwork and stimulating discussion are key: participative learners enjoy getting involved, meaning that the opportunity to debate a matter in a classroom – rather than being asked to listen to a lecture in silence – will be met with an energetic response.

Competitive
Competitive students are mistrustful of their peers and prioritise learning as a way to outperform other students in their class. They feel their only reward is to outstrip the competition, and attention must be given to showing them the other benefits that can be gained from absorbing and analysing information. Like participative learners, competitive students enjoy class discussion, but teachers must ensure that they do not dominate. Structured activities – a business game like Crowdfund Campus’ Sandpit simulation, for instance – would suit a competitive learner, as their natural instinct to lead would be a positive asset in this environment.

Collaborative
In direct contrast to competitive learners, collaborative students work in harmony with their peers and blossom as part of a team. They don’t tend to respond well to assignments that focus on extended periods of solo study, however; for this type of learner to flourish, teachers should prioritise elements of curriculum co-design, team projects, and lectures followed by discussion in small groups.

Dependent
Dependent students dislike change. Lacking in intellectual curiosity, they tend to learn only what is required to get by, and become frustrated if they are asked to explore ideas that are not fully explained in the classroom. In order to stimulate their interest, teachers must be prepared to take a more didactic approach, providing clear outlines, notes and instructions, leading all classroom activities, and avoiding ambiguity.

Independent
Independent learners relish the opportunity to think for themselves. They are confident in their own ability to deduce which course content is most important, and will often work outside of the curriculum if they feel a topic deserves further exploration. Whilst they prefer to work alone, they are also good as part of a team, and will listen to the ideas of their peers. To help them reach their full potential, teachers should provide a good mix of independent study and student-centred course design, allowing these learners the space to explore particular topics or assignments that interest them (but providing a guiding hand to ensure they don’t stray too far from the prescribed path).

There is no ‘right’ way to learn, but one thing is clear: students learn most efficiently if they are familiarised with a range of different learning styles and then guided on when, and how, to apply the style that is most suitable for each particular task.

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford expanded on Kolb’s experiential model to develop four categories of learning, suggesting that most students will only use one or two of them. They designed a questionnaire to help learners identify their preferred styles, which are grouped as follows: activists; reflectors; theorists; and pragmatists. Keep reading to find out a little more about the four styles and the types of learning preferred by each.

Activists

Perhaps unsurprisingly, activists learn by doing. They are daring and will ‘try anything once’, preferring new experiences to tried-and-tested routines.

Activists learn best when they are:

• Thrown into a challenge without preparation.
• Involved in a new activity or presented with an unfamiliar problem.
• Working as a team.
• Leading a team.
• Problem-solving via activities, such as games or role-playing.

Activists don’t respond well to:

• Activities that demand lengthy periods of intense concentration. Being asked to listen to long lectures, read lengthy materials, or analyse reams of data, will not inspire an activist.
• Being asked to follow precise instructions.

Reflectors

The opposite of activists in certain ways, reflectors learn through quiet observation and intensive reflection. Reflectors like to think about a problem from every angle before making a decision.

Reflectors learn best when they are:

• Given time to reflect and consider before taking any action.
• Allowed to observe or investigate.
• Provided the opportunity to review all historical data.

Reflectors don’t respond well to:

• Leadership roles.
• Being forced to make snap decisions.
• Feeling rushed.

Theorists

Theorists learn in a thorough, yet slightly abstract way. They respond well to models and concepts, as well as facts. Highly logical, they like to analyse and ‘work through’ problems in a clear, concise manner, and balk at anything they deem to be subjective.

Theorists learn best when they are:

• Participating in an activity that is structured, backed up by a system/theory, and has a clear purpose.
• Given the opportunity to ask questions and flesh out a concept.
• Challenged to understand complex models or situations.

Theorists do not respond well to:

• Activities that are deemed to be too fluid and without a clearly defined end goal.
• Being asked to make snap decisions without being thoroughly acquainted with supporting information and background theory.
• Being asked to approach scenarios from an emotional viewpoint.

Pragmatists

Keen on the practical application of knowledge, pragmatists like to learn through experience. They are innovative yet impatient (particularly if they feel conversations are too theoretical and open-ended).

Pragmatists learn best when:

• There is a real-life problem that is clearly served by the learning topic.
• They can learn from a practical example.
• They are encouraged to try things out and gain first-hand experience of a technique.

Pragmatists do not respond well to:

• Being asked to perform a task without clear guidelines.
• Being asked to perform a task that serves no apparent, practical purpose.
• Any task that appears purely ‘theoretical’ and without boundaries.

If you work in education and are trying to find new ways to engage your classroom, look no further. Crowdfund Campus’ unique offering – comprising a live crowdfunding marketplace and Sandpit simulation tool – encourages creative problem-solving and nurtures different types of learning. Contact us today to learn how our innovative platform can help your students.

David A.Kolb’s groundbreaking work, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, was published in 1984 – but its effects are still felt today.

The concept of learning through discovery and experience is still employed in education on a broad scale, particularly in terms of business studies: the popular 70/20/10 model, for instance, is founded on the principle that 70% of what we know comes from experience; and ‘trial-and-error’ based exercises – such as Crowdfund Campus’s own Sandpit platform – provide effective tools through which young entrepreneurs can test and refine their enterprise ideas.

What is Experiential Learning?

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is named as such to emphasise the important role that experience plays in the learning process. Indeed, Professor Kolb argues that ‘knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience’ (Kolb, 1984, p.41). In Experiential Learning, Kolb sets out four different learning styles, all of which are connected: a continuous learning cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualisation and experimentation.

The cycle, broadly, is as follows:

1. Concrete Experience (CE)
2. Reflective Observation (RO)
3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
4. Active Experimentation (AE)

This cycle is connected to four different learning styles, each of which represents a combination of different stages of the learning process:

Diverging (CE/RO)

Those with a Diverging learning preference tend to be open-minded, sensitive, emotional, and artistic. They prefer to observe and reflect, taking all perspectives into account, and use their imagination to create solutions to problems.

Engagement tactics: Diverging learners are excellent at ideas-generation and enjoy teamwork and brainstorming. As such, a combination of one-on-one feedback sessions and group discussion should be promoted within the classroom. Diverging learners prefer to receive personal feedback that they can then digest and reflect on in solitude, but – in terms of everyday learning – they perform best when working as part of a group.

Assimilating (AC/RO)

For Assimilating learners, ideas and logic take precedence over person-to-person interactions. Good, clear explanations – rather than hands-on opportunities – are preferred; as are abstract concepts and complex, established theories. These learners excel at organising ideas and information, work in a logical, highly-focused manner, and often show an interest in science or mathematics.

Engagement tactics: Readings and lectures are preferable to class discussion. In terms of learning aids, Assimilating learners find analytical models helpful and stimulating, though they will respond best when given time to think things through – rather than being asked to make quick or instinctive decisions.

Converging (AC/AE)

Similar to Assimilating learners, students who prefer a Converging learning style are less concerned with interpersonal relationships in the classroom: instead, they prefer technical tasks and tend to draw on practical knowledge throughout the learning process. As such, they are problem solvers rather than idea generators, and enjoy making decisions by applying technical or real-life knowledge to abstract issues.

Engagement tactics: Create room for experimentation within the working environment by making use of business games and simulations (like Crowdfund Campus’ Sandpit tool). This approach will allow Converging learners to build on real-life experiences and make the most of their technical abilities.

Accommodating (CE/AE)

Often referred to as a ‘hands-on’ approach, Accommodating learners rely on their intuition and interactions with other people in order to develop their thinking. They thrive on challenges and love to experiment, but prefer for there to be a plan in place first; they are doers, rather than planners, and without a strategy will rely on instinct.

Engagement tactics: Teamwork and targets are a must for the Accommodating learner, so teachers should be prepared to cater for this. A crowdfunding exercise may prove to be the perfect solution, particularly within an enterprise education setting: by using a live platform like that provided by Crowdfund Campus, students are given the opportunity to create cohesive, comprehensive campaigns, working as a team to meet their goals and raise awareness of their product/service. An Accommodating learner would fit perfectly into this environment, which would stimulate their desire to rise to challenges, experiment with different approaches in order to meet an objective, and work within a group.

We are proud to offer support to students and universities who wish to ‘think outside the box’ and embrace different ways of learning. If you’d like to find out more about our offering, please send an email to support@crowdfundcampus.com – or take a look at our innovative Sandpit tool for further insight. We hope to hear from you!

In basic terms, ‘learning style’ denotes the way a student collates, interprets, sifts through, and organises information in order to draw conclusions from it. Scientists and psychologists have developed over 70 recognised learning style schemes. One of the most popular, the VARK model, was pioneered by innovative educator Neil Fleming in 1987 – and it is still used widely today.

What is the VARK Model?

VARK stands for Visual, Aural, Reading/Writing, Kinaesthetic – four styles of learning Neil Fleming felt most learners could be categorised into (though Fleming notes that many learners respond to more than one style).

Whilst – as mentioned above – there are many different theories concerning learning styles, an understanding of the VARK model, among others, will prove valuable when communicating with a diverse audience – whether that is in an enterprise education classroom or via your crowdfunding campaign. With this in mind, our overview of the four styles describes not only how these types of learners understand and interpret data, but also how you might engage them:

Visual

A familiar but widely misunderstood learning style. Often perceived as a tendency to respond best to pictures or videos, visual learners in fact process information most effectively through the use of graphical tools – such as flow diagrams or graphs – that allow them to interpret data in a rational fashion. Students with this learning style view data as pieces of a puzzle, and tend to organise their notes in a highly-cogent manner – thus allowing them to visualise connections between strands of information.

Engagement tactics: Make sure that information is presented in a highly visual – but logical – way, utilising charts and graphics and clearly signposting the relationships between the various points you are making.

Aural

Students with this style prefer an emphasised use of speech and hearing throughout the learning process. They would prefer the use of auditory material, lectures, and class discussion; when alone, they may read aloud to themselves or seek out online communications that provide auditory stimuli. These kinds of learners respond best when messages are delivered in an audio format, and when they are encouraged to take notes of what they’ve learned, rewording in an individual way that makes it easy for them to recite aloud and absorb.

Engagement tactics: Make it easy for auditory learners to repeat the information you’ve presented out loud; this will help them to remember it. Including question-and-answer sessions wherever possible and encourage structured debate around key topics. Such tactics can be incorporated into marketing campaigns, too; Jon Loomer (a prolific blogger and marketing expert) provides audio versions of his written blogs.

Reading/Writing

The modern educational system was founded on the reading/writing style, and as such it tends not to be discussed within a critical setting. It is simply assumed that students must master this style in order to succeed at school or university. However, reading/writing is not only a crucial component of education, but also represents a specific learning style. Individuals that respond to this style of learning prefer to write out materials, and to read, read again, and re-read once more. Materials are absorbed most readily when organised in a structured form (such as in a list).

Engagement tactics: Make it easy for reading/writing learners to read along with you; if you’re giving a speech or presentation in a classroom, provide annotated handouts so that these learners will engage. Regular written quizzes are also recommended.

Kinaesthetic

Kinaesthetic translates to tactile forms of learning – the ‘practice makes perfect’ approach to education. Kinaesthetic learners respond best to activities that require them to perform tasks in an active way. This doesn’t necessarily mean that physical activity is required; students with a kinaesthetic bent learn effectively when working through practice problems (as opposed to reading a textbook) or when applying academic concepts to real-life problems (such as algebra in a business scenario).

Engagement tactics: The introduction of role-playing scenarios, exercises that require students to get up and move around, or mental problems that involve real-life environments are a great way to stimulate kinaesthetic learners.

If you are an enterprise educator looking for innovative ways of engaging your students, we would be delighted to help. Our live crowdfunding marketplace and Sandpit simulation are interactive, multifaceted platforms that encourage creative problem-solving whilst catering to – and stimulating – different types of learning. Contact us today to book a free demonstration.